The Roots of Satyagraha: Ancient Philosophies and Global Influences

Mahatma Gandhi’s philosophy of Satyagraha-the force born of truth and non-violence-did not emerge in a vacuum. It was a remarkable synthesis of diverse philosophical traditions, spanning ancient Indian scriptures, Hindu mythology, Christian teachings, and Western political thought. Understanding these sources helps us appreciate how Gandhi transformed timeless spiritual principles into a powerful tool for political and social change.

Ancient Indian foundations: Jainism, Buddhism, and the Upanishads 🔗

Gandhi grew up in Gujarat, a region with a significant Jain community, and Jain thought profoundly shaped his worldview. The Jain tradition places Ahimsa (non-violence) at the very centre of its ethical code-not merely as the absence of physical harm, but as non-violence in thought, word, and action. For Jains, Ahimsa is the highest religious duty, expressed in the Sanskrit phrase Ahimsa Paramo Dharma. This rigorous commitment to avoiding harm to all living beings deeply resonated with Gandhi and became the bedrock of his resistance philosophy.

Buddhism, too, contributed to Gandhi’s understanding of non-violence. Ahimsa is one of the five central precepts of Buddhism, rooted in the belief that all living beings share a spark of divine spiritual energy. Both Jainism and Buddhism hold that acts of violence carry karmic consequences, linking ethical conduct directly to spiritual progress.

The Upanishads and the pursuit of Satya 🔗

While Gandhi did not formally study the Upanishads, many of these ancient Hindu texts became part of his regular study and reference. A portion of the Isha Upanishad was recited daily in his ashram prayers. The Brihadaranyaka Upanishad gave him the concept of the supremacy of Dharma (cosmic law) over temporal power-the idea that even the weak can overcome the strong through Satya (truth). The Taittiriya Aranyaka reinforced that everything is founded on Dharma, the highest good that banishes evil. Satya and Ahimsa are traditionally identified with Dharma, the cosmic law governing human conduct.

This philosophical foundation established that truth is not merely factual accuracy but an eternal cosmic principle-the Sanskrit word “sat” means “being” or “that which exists.” For Gandhi, only truth truly exists, and untruth, being non-existent, cannot ultimately prevail.

Hindu mythology and the legend of Raja Harishchandra 🔗

Childhood stories left an indelible mark on Gandhi’s moral imagination. In his autobiography, The Story of My Experiments with Truth, Gandhi recounts watching a play about Raja Harishchandra, the legendary king who dedicated his life to truth. Harishchandra endured terrible ordeals-losing his kingdom, selling his wife and son into servitude, and becoming a servant at a cremation ground-rather than break his promise or speak a falsehood.

Gandhi wrote that the play “haunted me and I must have acted Harishchandra to myself times without number.” He wondered, “Why should not all be truthful like Harishchandra?” This story demonstrated that holding fast to truth brings ultimate vindication, no matter how severe the suffering. Gandhi’s early self-identification with truth and love as supreme values is directly traceable to this epic character.

The influence of the Bhagavad Gita 🔗

Among all scriptures, the Bhagavad Gita held a special place in Gandhi’s heart. He called it his “spiritual dictionary” that never failed him in times of distress. When doubts haunted him and disappointments stared at him, Gandhi ran to “Mother Gita” for consolation, and she never failed to comfort him.

The concept of Anasakti (selfless action) 🔗

What made the Gita particularly significant for Gandhi was its teaching on Anasakti-performing one’s duty without attachment to results. In the Gita, Lord Krishna advises the warrior Arjuna on the nature of righteous action, emphasizing that one must act according to one’s Dharma while remaining detached from the fruits of that action. Gandhi interpreted this to mean that one must engage in righteous action (Satyagraha) without any desire for personal gain, thus aligning oneself with the cosmic order.

This teaching became central to Gandhi’s method: the Satyagrahi must fight for justice not for personal victory but for truth itself, remaining indifferent to success or failure, reward or punishment.

Christian teachings and the Sermon on the Mount 🔗

During his law studies in London (1888-1891), Gandhi encountered the New Testament. The Sermon on the Mount, found in the Gospel of Matthew, struck him with particular force. Gandhi read from the Sermon on the Mount nearly every morning and evening for over forty years, deciding early on to live according to Jesus’ teachings.

Jesus’ instruction to “turn the other cheek” (Matthew 5:39) and to love one’s enemies (Matthew 5:44) deeply influenced Gandhi’s principle of non-retaliation. He wrote: “The gentle figure of Christ, so patient, so kind, so loving, so full of forgiveness that he taught His followers not to retaliate when abused or struck-I thought it was a beautiful example of the perfect human being.”

Gandhi saw no distinction between the Gita and the Sermon-both came from the same source of eternal truth. He found the message of renunciation and living service in both texts. His philosophy of Satyagraha emerged as a non-violent path for truth, directly aligned with these Christian teachings.

The example of Socrates 🔗

Gandhi was also profoundly influenced by the Greek philosopher Socrates, who chose death rather than betray his principles. Gandhi translated Plato’s Apology into Gujarati, and scholars have noted striking similarities between Gandhi’s defence at his trial in 1922 and Socrates’ defence before the Athenian court. Both men spoke of an inner voice guiding their conscience and accepted suffering rather than abandon truth.

Western inspirations: Thoreau, Tolstoy, and Ruskin 🔗

While Gandhi’s philosophy was rooted in Indian traditions, Western thinkers helped crystallize and expand his ideas.

Henry David Thoreau and civil disobedience 🔗

Gandhi first encountered Thoreau’s essay “Civil Disobedience” while already engaged in the passive resistance struggle in South Africa. He later wrote that reading the essay provided “scientific confirmation” for his activities. Gandhi borrowed the term “civil disobedience” to explain Satyagraha to his Indian followers in South Africa. However, Gandhi clarified that his concept of Satyagraha evolved independently before he read Thoreau-the American’s work reinforced rather than originated his ideas. Thoreau’s writing was required reading in Gandhi’s ashram, demonstrating the cross-cultural exchange between Indian and American thought.

Leo Tolstoy and non-violent resistance 🔗

Among Western influences, Tolstoy affected Gandhi most profoundly. When asked in 1931 which world figure had exercised the greatest influence on the twentieth century, Gandhi answered categorically: “Tolstoy. He alone.”

Tolstoy’s book The Kingdom of God Is Within You made a deep impression on Gandhi. Both men shared a philosophy of non-violence, and both considered themselves followers of the Sermon on the Mount. Gandhi corresponded with Tolstoy in the Russian writer’s final year of life (1909-1910), and these exchanges left a lasting impact. Gandhi even named his South African settlement “Tolstoy Farm” in honour of the Russian master. Tolstoy’s ideas on simplicity, celibacy, and manual labour all found expression in Gandhi’s lifestyle and teachings.

John Ruskin and the dignity of labour 🔗

In 1904, Gandhi had a transformative encounter with John Ruskin’s book Unto This Last. He was so moved that he decided to change his entire life based on its teachings. Gandhi derived three principles from Ruskin’s work: the good of the individual is contained in the good of all; all honest work has equal dignity; and the life of manual labour-the tiller of the soil and the handicraftsman-is the life worth living.

Gandhi translated the book into Gujarati as Sarvodaya (welfare of all), a term that became central to his political philosophy of inclusive development. Ruskin’s emphasis on physical labour influenced Gandhi’s principle of “Nai Talim,” which held that knowledge and work are inseparable.

Gandhi as an experimenter with eternal truths 🔗

Gandhi never claimed to have invented new principles. He titled his autobiography The Story of My Experiments with Truth-a telling choice of words. He saw himself as a humble experimenter applying eternal, universal principles of Truth and Non-violence to contemporary political and social life on an unprecedented scale.

In his instructions for Satyagrahis during the Non-cooperation movement, Gandhi recommended literature including Thoreau’s “Civil Disobedience,” Tolstoy’s “Letter to Russian Liberals,” and Ruskin’s “Unto This Last” alongside his own Hind Swaraj. This reading list itself reveals Gandhi’s synthetic approach-drawing from diverse traditions to create a coherent philosophy of action.

Gandhi acknowledged that while Ahimsa is found in Hinduism, Christianity, and Islam, it found its highest expression and application in the Indian tradition. He did not see Jainism or Buddhism as separate from Hinduism but as part of a continuous spiritual heritage. His genius lay in taking these spiritual principles-tested in personal and religious contexts-and transforming them into instruments of mass political mobilization.

The concept of self-suffering (Tapasya) that Gandhi adopted was not about passive acceptance of injustice. Rather, the Satyagrahi willingly endures suffering to demonstrate commitment to truth and to awaken the conscience of the oppressor. By enduring hardship for a greater cause, the Satyagrahi demonstrates moral superiority without resorting to violence-a principle Gandhi found echoed in Socrates, Jesus, Buddha, and Mahavira alike.

What do you think? Can ancient spiritual principles still guide political action in our contemporary world? How might Gandhi’s synthesis of Eastern and Western thought inspire new approaches to addressing injustice today?

References

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