Jainism Explained: Its Schools, Vows, and Core Doctrines

Jainism stands as one of the oldest religions in the world, originating in ancient India and presenting a distinctive path to spiritual liberation. With its emphasis on non-violence, ethical conduct, and a unique understanding of reality, Jainism offers profound insights that have influenced thinkers across centuries-including Mahatma Gandhi, who drew deeply from its principles. This post explores the fundamental aspects of Jainism: its two major schools, its metaphysical foundations, its central doctrine of non-violence, and its approach to truth and spirituality.

Digambara and Swetambara: the two main schools 🔗

Jainism is broadly divided into two major schools of thought: Digambara (meaning “sky-clad” or naked) and Swetambara (meaning “white-clad”). This division occurred approximately 300 BCE in Magadha during a severe twelve-year famine, when some Jain monks migrated south under the leadership of Bhadrabahu while others remained in the north with Sthulabhadra.

The differences between these two sects are primarily related to monastic practices rather than core philosophy. Digambara monks practice complete nudity as a symbol of total renunciation of worldly possessions, believing that even clothing represents attachment. Swetambara monks, by contrast, wear simple white garments and carry certain possessions such as a begging bowl and a brush to remove insects from their path.

Another significant difference concerns the spiritual potential of women. Digambaras hold that women cannot attain liberation directly and must first be reborn as men. Swetambaras disagree, maintaining that women can achieve moksha without such rebirth. This is reflected in their belief that the 19th Tirthankara, Mallinatha, was female-a claim Digambaras reject.

Despite these differences, both sects accept the Tattvartha Sutra of Umasvati as authoritative and share the same fundamental philosophy and ethical principles. Both traditions have developed numerous sub-sects (called Gachhas), with some sources mentioning up to 84 such groups, yet peaceful relations have generally prevailed between them. Each maintains a separate lineage of teachers tracing back to Mahavira, the 24th Tirthankara.

Jain metaphysics: Jiva, Ajiva, and a universe teeming with life 🔗

Jain philosophy presents a distinctive metaphysical worldview that divides all existence into two fundamental categories: Jiva (soul or living substance) and Ajiva (non-soul or non-living substance). This dualistic understanding forms the foundation for Jain ethics and spiritual practice.

Understanding Jiva (soul) 🔗

The Jiva is essentially an undivided base of consciousness, and there are infinite such souls in the universe. Unlike Buddhist philosophy which denies a permanent self, or Hindu Vedanta which often speaks of merging with a universal soul, Jainism maintains that each soul is unique, eternal, and independent. The true nature of the soul is characterized by perfect knowledge, perception, bliss, and energy-qualities that become obscured through karmic bondage.

One of the most remarkable aspects of Jain metaphysics is its recognition that souls inhabit all forms of life, from humans and animals to plants and microscopic organisms. Living beings are classified by the number of senses they possess: one-sensed beings like plants and earth-bodies possess only the sense of touch; progressively, beings can have two senses (like worms), three senses (like ants), four senses (like flies), and five senses (like animals and humans). Humans are considered to possess a sixth faculty-rational thought-giving them the unique capacity for spiritual liberation.

The five categories of Ajiva 🔗

The non-living substances in Jain philosophy comprise five distinct categories, each with a specialized meaning:

Pudgala (matter) refers to all physical substances in the universe. Pudgala consists of atoms and is the only form of Ajiva perceptible to the senses. Importantly, karma in Jainism is understood as subtle material particles that attach to the soul based on one’s actions.

Dharma in Jain metaphysics does not mean religion or ethics but rather the principle that makes motion possible-similar to how water enables fish to swim.

Adharma is the complementary principle that makes rest possible, enabling things in motion to stop.

Akasha (space) provides the medium in which all other substances exist and function.

Kala (time) enables change and transformation in substances.

These five categories, together with Jiva, constitute the six eternal substances (dravyas) of Jain cosmology. Jain doctrine emphasizes that these substances are eternally existing and uncreated, and their mutual interaction explains everything that exists-without requiring a creator.

The centrality of Ahimsa (non-violence) 🔗

Ahimsa-non-violence or non-injury-stands as the cornerstone of Jain ethics and is famously summarized in the maxim “Ahimsa Paramo Dharma” (non-violence is the highest religion). Jain theology holds that no matter how correct or defensible violence may seem, one must not kill or harm any being, and non-violence is the highest religious duty.

What distinguishes Jain ahimsa from similar concepts in other traditions is its comprehensive scope and rigorous application. All living beings, regardless of size or spiritual development, are considered equal in their right to exist. No living being-whether human, animal, insect, or plant-has the right to harm another.

For Jain monks and nuns, this principle extends to extreme care in daily activities. They filter their drinking water to avoid harming microscopic organisms, sweep the ground before sitting to avoid crushing insects, and traditionally do not eat after sunset to prevent accidentally consuming insects attracted to light. Some Swetambara monks cover their mouths with white cloth to minimize the possibility of inhaling small organisms.

Beyond physical non-violence, ahimsa must be practiced in thought and speech as well. Perpetually harboring negative thoughts is considered worse than an isolated impulsive action. This rigorous practice of non-violence is understood as essential for shedding karma and achieving liberation-the soul cannot purify itself while continually binding new karmic matter through harmful actions.

The five vows and three jewels 🔗

To overcome the cycle of rebirth and achieve moksha (liberation), Jains follow a structured path consisting of the Three Jewels (Ratnatraya) and the Five Vows.

The three jewels 🔗

The Three Jewels constitute Jainism’s highest aspirations: Samyak Darshana (right faith or vision), Samyak Jnana (right knowledge), and Samyak Charitra (right conduct). These three are interdependent-one cannot have right conduct without right knowledge, and one cannot have right knowledge without right perception. Right faith involves conviction in the teachings of the Tirthankaras; right knowledge means understanding the nature of self and non-self; right conduct means living in accordance with these teachings.

The five vows 🔗

The Five Vows form the basis on which the superstructure of Jain ethics has been raised:

Ahimsa (non-violence): Refraining from injury to any living being in thought, word, or deed.

Satya (truthfulness): Speaking truth that is beneficial and not harmful.

Asteya (non-stealing): Not taking what is not freely given.

Brahmacharya (chastity): Celibacy for monks; sexual restraint and fidelity for householders.

Aparigraha (non-possessiveness): Limiting attachment to material possessions.

These vows are practiced as Mahavratas (great vows) by monks and nuns with complete strictness, and as Anuvratas (small vows) by householders in a modified form. Ascetics observe these vows in thought, speech, and action, while lay followers adapt them to practical life. Notably, unlike some Hindu paths where different practices may be optional or sequential, Jain tradition requires all five vows to be practiced simultaneously.

Anekantavada: the doctrine of multiple viewpoints 🔗

Anekantavada, often translated as “non-absolutism” or “many-sidedness,” represents one of Jainism’s most distinctive philosophical contributions. This doctrine states that ultimate truth and reality are complex and have multiple aspects-no single, specific statement can fully describe the nature of existence.

The classic illustration is the parable of the blind men and the elephant: each man touching a different part describes the elephant differently based on his limited perception, yet none captures the complete truth. Similarly, Jains hold that viewing reality from only one perspective while excluding others leads to error.

Syadvada and Saptabhangi 🔗

Anekantavada is expressed through Syadvada (the doctrine of conditional predication) and Saptabhangi (the seven-fold predication). The word “syat” means “perhaps” or “in some respect,” and every statement about reality should be qualified with this term to acknowledge its conditional nature.

The seven conditional modes examine reality from different angles: something may be said to exist, to not exist, to both exist and not exist, to be indescribable, and combinations thereof-each statement preceded by “perhaps” or “from a certain viewpoint.”

This doctrine fosters intellectual humility, tolerance, and respect for others’ perspectives. The doctrines of ahimsa, anekantavada, and syadvada are organically related-non-absolutism represents non-violence applied to thought itself, enabling one to respect others’ views while reviewing one’s own thoughts critically and honestly.

Asceticism and non-theism in Jain thought 🔗

Jainism places strong emphasis on ascetic practice throughout life, not merely in old age as some Hindu traditions recommend. Fasting, meditation, and various austerities serve the purpose of self-purification and shedding karmic bondage. The moral ideal in Jainism is fundamentally an ascetic ideal-breaking attachments to worldly pleasures and sensory enjoyments.

Non-theistic foundations 🔗

Jainism is often described as non-theistic or transtheistic because it holds that the universe was not created and will exist forever-independent, with no creator, governor, judge, or destroyer. According to Jain doctrine, the universe and its constituents have always existed, and all actions are governed by universal natural laws rather than divine intervention.

Jain philosophers offer several arguments against a creator god. The Jain theory of causation holds that a cause and its effect must be identical in nature-therefore a conscious, immaterial god cannot create a material universe. Furthermore, since matter cannot be created from nothing, the total matter in the universe remains constant.

However, Jainism does believe in “god” in a different sense: souls who have achieved unlimited bliss, unlimited knowledge, unlimited power, and unlimited perception through their own efforts are regarded as divine. The Tirthankaras (ford-makers) who have achieved liberation are worshipped as guides who point the way to enlightenment. The crucial difference is that the Jain idea of godhood is the perfected soul-any soul that destroys its karmas achieves this divine state through self-effort alone.

This perspective places complete responsibility for liberation on the individual. No god, prophet, or angel can interfere in the actions or destiny of the soul. Moral rewards and sufferings result not from divine judgment but from an innate moral order-the law of karma operating as a self-regulating mechanism.

What do you think? How does Jainism’s understanding of non-violence as extending to all life forms-including plants and microorganisms-challenge or complement modern environmental ethics? In what ways might the doctrine of anekantavada, with its emphasis on multiple perspectives, be relevant to navigating disagreements in our polarized contemporary world?

References

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