Main Phases of the Non-Cooperation Movement: 1920-22

The Non-Cooperation Movement (1920-22) remains one of the most transformative phases in India’s freedom struggle. It was the first time that millions of ordinary Indians-students, lawyers, farmers, women, and workers-came together under a unified call to resist British rule through peaceful means. Led by Mahatma Gandhi, this movement unfolded in distinct phases, each building momentum until an unexpected tragedy brought it to an abrupt halt.

Formal launch and Congress endorsement 🔗

The Non-Cooperation Movement was formally launched on August 1, 1920-the same day Bal Gangadhar Tilak passed away-from the Khilafat platform. Gandhi’s strategy was simple yet radical: if Indians withdrew their cooperation from British institutions, the colonial government would collapse under its own weight.

The Indian National Congress initially had reservations. Many senior leaders, including C.R. Das, Pandit Madan Mohan Malaviya, and Annie Besant, opposed the idea of mass agitation. However, at the special session held in Calcutta in September 1920, presided over by Lala Lajpat Rai, Congress formally approved the movement despite these objections.

The program received full endorsement at the Nagpur Session in December 1920. Here, the Congress restructured itself into a genuine mass organisation with local units at village and district levels. The entry fee was reduced to just four annas to attract broader participation from all sections of society. The Congress Working Committee was formed to streamline operations. The movement’s objectives included boycotting government schools and colleges, courts, legislative councils, foreign goods, and elections. Indians were also urged to surrender British-conferred titles and honorary positions.

Boycott and Swadeshi drive (January-March 1921) 🔗

The first phase of active implementation began in January 1921. The initial focus was on students and lawyers leaving their institutions and practices. This was a significant sacrifice-education and legal careers represented prestige and financial security for middle-class Indians.

Thousands of students walked out of government-aided schools and colleges across India. National institutions like Gujarat Vidyapith, Bihar Vidyapith, Kasi Vidyapith, Tilak Maharashtra Vidyapith, the Bengal National University, and Jamia Millia Islamia in Delhi were established as alternatives. Prominent lawyers like C.R. Das and Motilal Nehru gave up their lucrative legal practices-an extraordinary personal sacrifice that inspired many others.

The Swadeshi campaign gained tremendous momentum during this period. Public bonfires of foreign cloth became powerful symbols of defiance. The economic impact was substantial: the value of imported British cloth fell dramatically from Rs. 102 crores in 1920-21 to Rs. 57 crores in 1921-22. Merchants collectively pledged not to stock foreign cloth for specific periods. Picketing of shops selling foreign goods and liquor became widespread.

The role of Khadi 🔗

Khadi, or hand-spun cloth, emerged as the defining symbol of the movement. Gandhi saw the charkha (spinning wheel) not just as an economic tool but as a means of self-reliance and dignity. Spinning became a daily ritual for thousands of Indians, connecting them to the nationalist cause. The adoption of khadi represented a rejection of British industrial goods and an embrace of indigenous self-sufficiency.

Mass mobilization and fundraising (from March 1921) 🔗

After the Vijayawada Congress session in March 1921, the movement shifted focus toward mass enrolment, fundraising, and spreading the message to every corner of India. Gandhi set ambitious targets: enrolling one crore members in the Congress, collecting Rs. 1 crore for the Tilak Swaraj Fund, and distributing 20 lakh charkhas across the country.

The Tilak Swaraj Fund was announced by Gandhi on the first death anniversary of Tilak to finance constructive activities during the movement. The response exceeded expectations. Within six months, nearly one crore rupees was subscribed. Bombay alone contributed Rs. 36 lakhs, earning Gandhi’s praise as “Bombay the Beautiful” in his Young India magazine. Gujarat contributed Rs. 24 lakhs and Bengal Rs. 13 lakhs. The fund supported promoting khadi, establishing national schools, and organizing protests.

The movement witnessed unprecedented Hindu-Muslim unity. The Khilafat leaders-Maulana Muhammad Ali, Maulana Shaukat Ali, Maulana Abul Kalam Azad, Hakim Ajmal Khan, and Dr. M.A. Ansari-worked closely with Congress leaders. This alliance gave the movement massive reach across religious communities. From the tea gardens of Assam to the villages of Gujarat, people joined with enthusiastic slogans of “Gandhi Maharaj ki Jai.”

Escalation and confrontation (November 1921) 🔗

By late 1921, the movement had reached its peak. The government, confronted with a united Indian front for the first time, was visibly shaken. Two events during this period demonstrated the movement’s growing strength and the government’s increasing nervousness.

The Ali brothers’ sedition case 🔗

In 1921, Muhammad Ali called upon Muslims to resign from the British Indian Army, declaring such service incompatible with their faith. This was considered seditious by the colonial authorities. The Ali brothers were arrested in September 1921 for these statements. Gandhi echoed their call and asked local Congress committees to pass similar resolutions, further escalating tensions with the government.

Boycott of the Prince of Wales’ visit 🔗

The Prince of Wales (the future King Edward VIII) arrived in India in November 1921 as part of a tour to thank the colonies for their World War I contributions. The British hoped the royal visit would counter nationalist sentiment, with the Viceroy Lord Reading spending nearly ten million rupees on a grand welcome.

Gandhi and the Congress called for a complete boycott. The response was overwhelming. Hartals paralyzed dozens of towns across India on the day of his arrival. In Bombay, while the Prince paraded through the city center, Gandhi presided over a bonfire of foreign cloth in the suburbs. The violence that erupted in Bombay between 17-20 November left at least 58 dead. In Allahabad, the streets were so empty that barely 1,000 people came out to see the Prince instead of the expected 120,000. At Banaras Hindu University, students refused to attend when an honorary degree was conferred on him.

The government responded with mass arrests. By the end of 1921, over 30,000 people had been imprisoned, including prominent leaders. Both Jawaharlal Nehru and his father Motilal Nehru were arrested on December 6, 1921-their first imprisonments during the freedom struggle.

Withdrawal after Chauri Chaura 🔗

At its height, with the government seemingly on the verge of capitulating, the movement came to a sudden and controversial end. The catalyst was a violent incident in a small town in the Gorakhpur district of United Provinces (now Uttar Pradesh).

On February 4, 1922, around 2,000-2,500 protesters gathered at Chauri Chaura to picket a liquor shop as part of the non-cooperation campaign. Tensions had been building for days-on February 2, police had beaten and arrested several protest leaders. When the crowd marched toward the market, police confronted them and eventually opened fire, killing three civilians.

The enraged mob retaliated by chasing the policemen back to their station. When the officers took refuge inside, the crowd set fire to the police station, killing all 22-23 policemen trapped within. Those who tried to escape were attacked and thrown back into the flames.

Gandhi’s response 🔗

Gandhi was devastated. He had staked the entire movement on non-violence, and this bloodshed represented everything he had warned against. On February 12, 1922, Gandhi unilaterally called off the Non-Cooperation Movement. The Congress Working Committee, meeting at Bardoli, ratified his decision and resolved to halt all activities leading to lawbreaking, focusing instead on constructive work like promoting khadi and establishing national schools.

Gandhi’s decision was deeply controversial. Leaders like C.R. Das, Motilal Nehru, Subhash Chandra Bose, and Jawaharlal Nehru-many of whom were in prison at the time-felt the withdrawal was premature when the movement had the government on the defensive. Lala Lajpat Rai famously remarked that their defeat was proportional to the greatness of their leader. Gandhi himself later called the incident a “Himalayan Blunder,” acknowledging that he had moved too fast without adequately preparing the masses for disciplined non-violence.

In March 1922, Gandhi was arrested and sentenced to six years in prison. The colonial authorities punished the Chauri Chaura participants harshly-172 people were initially sentenced to death, though the Allahabad High Court later revised this to 19 executions and 110 life imprisonments.

Legacy of the movement 🔗

Despite its abrupt end, the Non-Cooperation Movement transformed India’s freedom struggle. It marked the first time the nationalist movement acquired a mass base beyond the urban middle classes. Workers, peasants, women, and students all participated in large numbers. The movement demonstrated that Indians could organize collectively, make significant personal sacrifices, and shake the foundations of colonial rule.

The infrastructure built during the movement-national schools, Congress organizational units at the village level, the culture of Swadeshi-persisted and formed the foundation for future struggles. The economic boycott proved that Indians could hurt British commercial interests substantially. Most importantly, the movement erased what Gandhi called the “fear psychosis” from Indian minds, inspiring confidence for the Civil Disobedience Movement and Quit India Movement that would follow.

What do you think? Was Gandhi’s decision to withdraw the movement after Chauri Chaura the right call, or did it waste the momentum that had been building? How might India’s path to independence have differed if the movement had continued?

References

1. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Non-cooperation_movement_(1919–1922)
2. https://vajiramandravi.com/upsc-exam/non-cooperation-movement/
3. https://www.historydiscussion.net/articles/non-cooperation-movement-1920-22-undertaken-by-the-indian-national-congress/2093
4. https://www.nextias.com/blog/non-cooperation-movement/
5. https://civilspedia.com/non-cooperation-movement/
6. https://testbook.com/question-answer/in-the-context-of-tilak-swaraj-fund-consider-the–5f9c505fc6f44d33e2aca415
7. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prince_of_Wales_riots
8. https://daily.jstor.org/the-prince-of-wales-1921-trip-to-india-was-a-royal-disaster/
9. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chauri_Chaura_incident
10. https://gorakhpur.nic.in/tourist-place/shaheed-smarak-chaurichaura/
11. https://prepp.in/news/e-492-chauri-chaura-incident-1922-modern-india-history-notes