In 1893, a young Indian lawyer boarded a train in South Africa with a valid first-class ticket, only to be forcibly removed from his compartment because of his skin color. This humiliating incident at Pietermaritzburg Railway Station became the turning point that transformed Mohandas Gandhi from a timid attorney into a determined activist, launching a 21-year struggle that would give birth to Satyagraha-a philosophy of nonviolent resistance that would eventually liberate India and inspire civil rights movements worldwide.
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The awakening of a leader
Gandhi arrived in South Africa in 1893 on a one-year legal contract, but what he encountered changed the course of his life. The Indian community, numbering around 62,000 people, faced systematic discrimination across British colonies and Boer republics. They were denied voting rights, subjected to residential restrictions, and treated as second-class citizens despite being subjects of the British Empire.
The discriminatory laws were both extensive and degrading. The Immigration Law Amendment Bill of 1895 imposed an annual tax of £3 on ex-indentured laborers-an enormous burden equivalent to thousands of rupees-while the Franchise Amendment Bill of 1894 stripped Indians of political representation. These experiences of daily humiliation awakened Gandhi’s consciousness about justice and human dignity.
Building organized resistance
Rather than accepting injustice passively, Gandhi began organizing the fragmented Indian community. In 1894, he founded the Natal Indian Congress, the first organized political body to represent Indian interests in South Africa. This marked a shift from individual complaints to collective action.
Understanding the power of communication, Gandhi started the newspaper Indian Opinion in 1903, published in English, Hindi, Gujarati, and Tamil. The newspaper educated the community about their rights, reported discriminatory laws, and provided a platform for organizing resistance. It became a crucial tool for building unity among Indians who spoke different languages and practiced different religions.
The Phoenix Settlement experiment
In 1904, Gandhi established Phoenix Settlement on 100 acres near Durban, inspired by John Ruskin’s book “Unto This Last.” This commune operated on principles of equality, self-reliance, and simple living. People from all backgrounds lived together, sharing resources and responsibilities without regard to race, caste, or religion. Phoenix housed the Indian Opinion printing press and demonstrated that Indians could be self-sufficient and productive, challenging racist stereotypes.
The birth of Satyagraha
The turning point came in 1906 when the Transvaal government introduced the Asiatic Registration Act, known as the “Black Act.” This law required all Indians to register, submit fingerprints, and carry identification certificates at all times-treating them like criminals through a system of biometric identification.
At a mass meeting on September 11, 1906, Gandhi adopted his evolving methodology of Satyagraha for the first time. The term, meaning “truth-force” or “holding onto truth,” represented something far more active than passive resistance. It was disciplined, nonviolent resistance based on moral principles-converting opponents through moral force rather than defeating them through physical force.
The first Satyagraha campaign
When registration offices opened on July 1, 1907, resisters picketed outside and gathered support in temples, mosques, and churches. Out of 13,000 Indians in the region, only 511 registered. Hundreds of campaigners, known as satyagrahis, courted arrest and imprisonment. The campaign demonstrated both discipline and determination.
Gandhi initially agreed to voluntary registration as a gesture of trust with General Jan Smuts, but when Smuts broke his promise and refused to repeal the Black Act, Indians publicly burned their registration certificates in August 1908 outside the Hamidia mosque. This dramatic act of defiance marked a new phase in the struggle.
Supporting the satyagrahis
To sustain the movement, Gandhi established Tolstoy Farm in 1910 on 1,100 acres near Johannesburg, named after Russian writer Leo Tolstoy who influenced his thinking. The farm served as both headquarters for the satyagraha campaign and home for families of imprisoned resisters. It had 85 permanent residents and operated from 1910 to 1913, functioning as a self-sustaining community where everyone contributed according to their ability. Children received education emphasizing character development alongside academics.
The 1913-14 mass movement
The campaign resumed with renewed intensity in March 1913 when Judge Searle of the Supreme Court declared Hindu and Muslim marriages legally invalid. This ruling essentially made Indian wives “concubines” and their children “illegitimate”-an insult that galvanized the entire community.
Women enter the struggle: For the first time, Indian women joined the movement en masse. Kasturba Gandhi, the Mahatma’s wife, declared she would “go to prison rather than be declared an unlawful wife”. Women crossed provincial borders without permits, deliberately courting arrest to overwhelm the prison system.
Workers join the fight: Gandhi initiated a campaign in Newcastle, Natal, on October 13, 1913, against the £3 tax on ex-indentured laborers. Within weeks, between 4,000 and 5,000 miners had joined the strike. Unexpectedly, 15,000 Indian workers in coastal sugar districts also joined, paralyzing industries throughout Natal.
The Great March
On November 6, 1913, at 6:30 in the morning, 2,037 men, 127 women, and 57 children began marching from Newcastle toward the Transvaal border. The march covered several stages, with preparations for food and shelter at each stopping point. This massive act of civil disobedience aimed to defy immigration restrictions by crossing provincial borders without permits.
Gandhi was arrested multiple times during the march but kept returning. He was imprisoned three times within four days and finally sentenced to nine months of hard labor. Other leaders were also arrested, yet the march continued. The marchers faced brutal treatment-they were transported back to mines enclosed by wire fences like concentration camps and forced to work under armed guard.
The tragedy deepened when 16-year-old Valliama Munuswami Mudliar, imprisoned for crossing the border, became ill in jail and died shortly after release. An elderly satyagrahi named Harbatsingh, aged 75, also died in Durban jail on January 5, 1914, after telling Gandhi he would rather die in prison than sit at home while Gandhi and his family suffered for the cause.
Victory and compromise
By the end of November 1913, produce markets in Durban and Pietermaritzburg had come to a standstill, sugar mills were closed, and hotels and restaurants were without workers. In India, reports of Gandhi’s arrest and police brutality caused an uproar. International pressure, combined with a simultaneous strike by white railway workers, forced the government’s hand.
General Smuts, under pressure from the British government, appointed a commission to investigate Indian grievances. The Indian Relief Act of 1914 abolished the £3 tax, recognized Indian marriages, repealed the Black Act, and eased immigration restrictions. Gandhi agreed to end the satyagraha campaign in exchange for these concessions.
While not perfect-internal passports remained and many discriminatory practices continued-Gandhi declared the settlement the “Magna Carta of our liberty in this land”. The victory proved that organized, nonviolent resistance could force powerful governments to negotiate.
The legacy of South African satyagraha
Gandhi’s South African campaigns established several key characteristics of successful nonviolent resistance. Careful preparation: Phoenix Settlement and Tolstoy Farm trained disciplined cadres in the principles of truth and nonviolence. Mass participation: The movement expanded beyond educated elites to include workers, women, and children. Willingness to suffer: Satyagrahis courted arrest and accepted imprisonment without retaliation. Flexibility in negotiations: Gandhi remained open to dialogue and compromise while maintaining core principles.
When Gandhi departed South Africa in 1914, he brought with him tested methods of resistance that would become the foundation of India’s independence movement. The techniques developed in South Africa-unity across religious and caste lines, use of newspapers for education, emphasis on nonviolent civil disobedience, and creation of self-sustaining communities-became central to India’s freedom struggle.
More importantly, Gandhi proved that ordinary people could challenge unjust systems through disciplined, nonviolent action. This message resonated throughout the colonized world and continues to inspire movements for social justice today. Leaders like Martin Luther King Jr. and Nelson Mandela would later adopt Gandhian principles in their own struggles against oppression.
What do you think? How did Gandhi’s experience organizing diverse groups in South Africa-traders, laborers, Hindus, Muslims, and Christians-prepare him for leading India’s independence movement? In what ways do the principles of Satyagraha developed during these campaigns remain relevant for addressing contemporary social injustices?
References
- https://www.history.com/this-day-in-history/june-7/gandhis-first-act-of-civil-disobedience
- https://www.studyiq.com/articles/gandhi-in-south-africa/
- https://nvdatabase.swarthmore.edu/content/indians-south-africa-wage-satyagraha-their-rights-1906-1914
- https://www.britannica.com/topic/Gandhis-Phoenix-Settlement
- https://scroll.in/article/1075713/ramachandra-guha-120-years-later-gandhis-phoenix-farm-still-has-the-power-to-move-visitors
- https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mahatma_Gandhi
- https://www.hcipretoria.gov.in/page/mahatma-gandhi-in-south-africa/
- https://www.hcipretoria.gov.in/page/mahatma-gandhi-remembrance-garden-tolstoy-farm/
- https://sahistory.org.za/article/1913-satyagraha-campaign-resumes
- https://africanbooth.com/gandhi-in-south-africa/
- https://ignoucorner.com/gandhis-satyagraha-movement-in-south-africa/
- https://caravanmagazine.in/editors-pick/volksrust-march-gandhi-south-africa
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